A model describing this signaling mechanism assumes that members of a specific subgroup of the TonB-dependent

receptors, which share a common N-terminal extension and which were termed TonB-dependent transducers, perceive an environmental signal in the outer membrane [84]. Such TonB-dependent transducers are energized via the TonB-ExbB-ExbD core complex, while their N-terminal extension permits contacting periplasmic structures of anti-sigma factors that are localized in the inner membrane. The anti-sigma factors can then interact with ECF family sigma Nirogacestat in vivo factors [84, 85], which can modulate bacterial gene expression at the transcriptional level. Probably the best understood paradigm for TonB-dependent trans-envelope Stattic signaling is the Fec signaling pathway of E. coli[61]. The exbD2 gene product of X. campestris pv. campestris B100 seems involved in trans-envelope signaling via the TonB system, while the exbD1 gene is also required to import substances like ferric iron [64]. However the situation

could be more complex, as exbD2 might also be involved in uptake of cell wall degradation products, and as exbD1 might be involved in further so far unidentified signaling processes. Currently there is no evidence that the products of both genes are involved in both functions, transportation and signaling. But likewise, so far there is no reason to assume strict task sharing, where the exbD1 gene product is exclusively required for transport, while ExbD2 is specialized on signaling. Further research could shed more light on the processes involved in bacterial reaction to the presence of pectin. Obviously, extracellular pectin-degrading enzymes are induced. But it is completely unclear which mechanisms are involved, and what kind of role the TonB core system plays. It could be just involved in importing polygalacturonic acid or derivatives of it. Imported galacturonic acid compounds could be perceived by an intracellular factor like a transcriptional regulator. Alternatively,

the TonB system could be directly involved in signaling Dapagliflozin via an anti-sigma factor as described by Koebnik [84]. Further more, there is no reason to exclude regulatory processes at post-transcriptional levels. Likewise, the specific roles of the enzymes involved in pectin degradation are unclear. The genome of X. campestris pv. campestris B100 includes six genes of enzymes that cleave the glycosidic bonds between adjacent glucuronic acid residues (Additional file 5: Table S2). The product of the polygalacturonase gene pglA2 is similar to a recently characterized X. fastidiosa enzyme [48], and the truncated pectate lyase encoded by pel4 is partially similar to an enzyme from Pseudomonas cellulosa[86], but seemed to lack the carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) [87] of the P. Selleckchem MDV3100 cellulosa enzyme. A polygalacturonate-induced gene for an X. campestris pv.