Coupled with increasing refined approaches for expanding human regulatory T cells or manipulating the suppressive potency of these cells using purified adjuvants,89,90,101,102

these multiple layers of heterogeneity in regulatory T cells reveal many exciting opportunities for therapeutically dissociating the detrimental and beneficial impacts that these cells play in host defence against infection and immune homeostasis. In concluding the seven-volume Chronicles of Narnia series, C.S. Lewis described their adventures as only ‘the cover and title page’. In this regard, given the enormous latent potential and arsenal of immune effectors uncovered with the identification of immune suppressive Treg cells together with the ongoing disproportionate burden CHIR99021 of infection-related Fulvestrant in vivo diseases that negatively impact human health, more potent and efficacious immune-mediated therapies for infectious disease treatment and prevention are poised for development. With the identification of Treg cells and the tremendous translational potential associated with therapeutically manipulating newly established facets of the dynamic interplay between Treg cells and immune effectors, chapter one of a great story related to reduced burden of infectious diseases is ready to be written.

Given space limitations, we apologize for not being able to discuss in a more in-depth manner the current references, and not being able to cite other important papers. We thank Dr Matthew Mescher for helpful discussions. This work was supported by funding Aprepitant from the NIH/NIDDK F30-DK084674 (to J.H.R.) and NIH/NIAID R01-AI087830 (to S.S.W.). “
“Mϕs promote tissue injury or repair depending on their activation status and the local cytokine milieu. It remains unclear whether the immunosuppressive effects of transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) serve a nonredundant

role in Mϕ function in vivo. We generated Mϕ-specific transgenic mice that express a truncated TGF-β receptor II under control of the CD68 promoter (CD68TGF-βDNRII) and subjected these mice to the dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) model of colitis. CD68TGF-βDNRII mice have an impaired ability to resolve colitic inflammation as demonstrated by increased lethality, granulocytic inflammation, and delayed goblet cell regeneration compared with transgene negative littermates. CD68TGF-βDNRII mice produce significantly less IL-10, but have increased levels of IgE and numbers of IL-33+ Mϕs than controls. These data are consistent with associations between ulcerative colitis and increased IL-33 production in humans and suggest that TGF-β may promote the suppression of intestinal inflammation, at least in part, through direct effects on Mϕ function. Damage within the gastrointestinal mucosa can be induced by a wide variety of physical, chemical, and/or infectious stimuli 1.