For example, MVs from human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)

enhance the survival of cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury in a mouse model by about 80% by increasing the expression of anti-apoptotic genes and down-regulating the expression of pro-apoptotic genes.73 EVs can affect or enhance autoimmunity and inflammation. Synovial fluid of RA patients contains strongly coagulant and pro-inflammatory vesicles which are mainly of leukocytic origin.54 Such EVs trigger autologous fibroblast-like synoviocytes to produce and secrete inflammatory mediators including monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, IL-8, IL-6, RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), ICAM-1 (Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1) and VEGF.54 Although PMVs were also reported to be present in synovial fluid, Osimertinib supplier there is no consensus on this matter yet.[18] and [74]

PMVs can also activate monocytes via the RANTES pathway, thereby inducing monocyte migration and recruitment to sites of inflammation.75 MVs from neutrophils trigger secretion of transforming growth factor β1, a potent inhibitor of macrophage activation, by human macrophages, and thus elicit an anti-inflammatory activity.76 These MVs also contain the anti-inflammatory protein annexin Etoposide research buy 1,77 and such vesicles inhibit the inflammatory response of macrophages to bacterial lipopolysaccharide.76 PMVs orchestrate immune responses by delivering CD154, also known as CD40 ligand or CD40L, to initiate and propagate the adaptive immune response via CD4+ T cells.78 Also tumor-derived exosomes can modulate the immune response by affecting the differentiation of antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells (DCs). buy Sirolimus Differentiation of monocytes to DCs is impaired by tumor-derived exosomes isolated from plasma of patients with advanced melanoma, and these exosomes also promote the generation of a myeloid immunosuppressive cell subset (CD14+HLA-DR−/low).29

In addition, exosomes from tumor cells can also down-regulate the immune response against the tumor by inducing apoptosis of activated T cells via the Fas/Fas ligand pathway. Wieckowski et al.79 demonstrated that EVs from tumor cells but not EVs from DCs isolated from sera of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma patients are enriched in Fas ligand. These EVs induced the proliferation of CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ T regulatory cells and suppressed CD8+ effector T cells in vitro. The suppression effect is mediated by Fas/FasL interactions. Thus, tumor-derived vesicles may contribute to tumor growth and development by interfering with the anti-tumor immune response via various mechanisms. Tissue factor (TF) initiates coagulation.