Rather, our data suggest that the uEPSC amplitude depends on the total number of synaptic contacts (Figure 8D). All but one of the hotspots examined exhibited evidence of multiple release sites (average 3.4 ± 0.4, n = 34 (Figure 4 and Figure 5); a likely underestimate because we could not derive the number of release sites

for the most reliable hotspots (n = 9 hotspots with no failures; Figure 4 and Figure 5). We cannot exclude the possibility that contacts releasing only one vesicle http://www.selleckchem.com/products/s-gsk1349572.html were undersampled in our data set due to a selection bias toward more salient, and thus larger, more reliable, Ca transients. However, we were typically able to resolve events resulting from the release of a single vesicle (Figure 4D). Furthermore, recordings in the presence of the low-affinity antagonist γ-DGG, which are not biased by selection for imaging, revealed clear evidence for release of multiple vesicles (Figure 6). Therefore, single release sites are likely to represent only a small fraction DAPT concentration of the total number of contacts. The results of failure analysis (1–7 release sites per hotspot; Figure 4 and Figure 5)

are based on two assumptions: (1) that a Pr of 0.8 is homogeneous and (2) that the decrease in Pr is also homogeneous. However, if Pr were as low as 0.5, the calculated N would range from 1 to 13 with a mean of 6.0 ± 0.5 release sites/hotspot; if the Pr were as high as 0.95, N would range from 0.6 to 6 with a mean of 2.7 ± 0.2 release sites/hotspot (n = 31). The second assumption is supported by the relatively good match between Etomidate the overall decrease in the Pr (as estimated by the decrease in EPSC amplitude) and the decrease in the amplitude of the Ca transient at an individual hotspot (Figure 5D and Figure S2). The ultrastructure of this synapse has been studied previously (Benshalom

and White, 1986, Kharazia and Weinberg, 1994, Staiger et al., 1996 and White et al., 1984), but our data represent the first set of serial images, allowing for detailed analysis of the synaptic structure. The finding that each contact is composed of one bouton apposed to one PSD (Figure 7) is consistent with the γ-DGG experiments suggesting multi-vesicular release (DiGregorio et al., 2002, Tong and Jahr, 1994, Wadiche and Jahr, 2001, Kharazia and Weinberg, 1994 and Staiger et al., 1996). One consequence of releasing many vesicles from one bouton is that the occupancy of postsynaptic receptors will depend on the number of vesicles released and hence on Pr. Because the activation of these receptors contributes to the postsynaptic Ca transient, local Ca concentration will change progressively with changes in Pr, as can be observed with neuromodulators (Figure 4) (Chalifoux and Carter, 2010 and Higley et al., 2009) or during repetitive presynaptic activity (Figure 5) (Hull et al., 2009). Thus, in response to each action potential, local Ca influx remains proportional to the global excitation of the cell.