Results with P < 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant. The incubation of HepG2 cells with GA for 24 h promoted cell viability decrease (Fig. 2A), as assessed by Annexin-V/PI double-staining (flow cytometry). At 25 μM, GA promoted around 50% cell death, an effect close similar to the effect of 25 μM CCCP. Isocitrate (1 mM), in turn, partly prevented Selleck Stem Cell Compound Library cell

death induced by 25 μM GA. The effect of GA on HepG2 cell mitochondrial membrane potential was estimated with the mitochondrion-specific dye, JC-1. As shown in Fig. 2B, GA promoted an extensive mitochondrial membrane potential dissipation in HepG2 cells. Unlike cell viability, this effect was not prevented by isocitrate. GA also induced ATP depletion in HepG2 cells after 24 h incubation (Fig. 2C), as well as ROS levels increase (Fig. 2D), both effects partly prevented by Z-VAD-FMK solubility dmso isocitrate. The concentration–response pattern for all above GA effects was closely similar, suggesting a correlation between them; interesting,

they were largely potentiated in HepG2 cells exposed to low glucose levels (results not shown), denoting energetic implications. We therefore performed studies on the GA effects in isolated rat-liver mitochondria, a classical model for studies on mitochondrial mechanisms. Fig. 3A shows concentration–response traces for the effects of GA on respiration of mitochondria isolated from rat liver. State 4 respiration rate supported by 5 mM succinate plus rotenone (V4) was increased by GA, denoting a mitochondrial uncoupling action (Fig. 3B). On the other hand, mitochondrial state 3 respiration rate (V3) was not affected by GA, denoting lack of respiratory chain the or ATP synthase inhibition (Figs. 3A and B). As expected, the V4 increase led to a decrease of the mitochondrial respiratory control ratio (Fig. 3C). Fig. 4A shows that GA promoted dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential (lines b, c, d, e versus line a), consistently with the observed increase of V4. This effect was not inhibited by either the classical mitochondrial permeability transition inhibitor cyclosporine A, ruthenium

red or EGTA (lines f, g and h, respectively). The fluorescence units (means ± SEM at 250 s) were: 51.60 ± 2.31 (line a), 56.51 ± 1.91 (line b), 97.62 ± 4.73 (line c), 111.68 ± 5.22 (line d), 204.53 ± 6.52 (line e), 114.8 ± 5.72 (line f), 103.4 ± 4.69 (line g), 100.7 ± 5.25 (line h); differences statistically significant were found between (line a) and the other lines, at P < 0.05. Fig. 4B shows that GA induced mitochondrial Ca2+ release, also in a way not prevented by cyclosporine A, but partially prevented by the Ca2+-uniporter blocker, ruthenium red. The fluorescence units (means ± SEM at 250 s) were: 41.90 ± 3.86 (line a), 58.00 ± 4.38 (line b), 142.30 ± 5.82 (line c), 133.42 ± 7.43 (line d), and 91.62 ± 6.83 (line e); differences statistically significant were found between (line a) and the other lines, at P < 0.05.