2012b) and gut content and stable isotope data indicate that macroalgal-associated, grazing amphipods from nature are consuming epiphytic diatoms (Aumack 2010), but our other evidence for benefits to the macroalgae comes from laboratory or mesocosm experiments (Amsler et al. 2009b, Aumack et al. 2011b). In recent field experiments in lower latitude communities, investigators selleck kinase inhibitor have used slow-release toxins to kill amphipods

associated with macroalgae or seagrasses (e.g., Poore et al. 2009, Cook et al. 2011, Whalen et al. 2012, Myers and Heck 2013) and found that while this often benefits the associated macrophytes, it is not always true. For example, Myers and Heck (2013) observed benefits to seagrasses only in areas where amphipod densities were relatively high. Release of toxins into the Antarctic environment is banned by The Antarctic Treaty of which the United States is one of 48 current Parties so such an experiment would be illegal to perform there. However, considering the very high amphipod densities on WAP macroalgae in combination with the laboratory, mesocosm, and field observations we have been able to accumulate, an EX-527 assumption that amphipod and probably gastropod mesograzers are benefiting their host macroalgae by consuming light-competing epiphytes in nature is justified. As discussed previously, the Hay and Duffy et al. hypothesis predicts that selection should favor the evolution

of mesograzer tolerance to the chemical defenses elaborated by their hosts and there are a number of examples of this in amphipods and other mesograzers from lower latitudes (Hay 1992, 1996, 2009). Erastin cost A fundamental tenet of our idea of a community-wide mutualism between Antarctic macroalgae and amphipods is that the amphipods are unable to eat the living macroalgae. If they did, or at least if they did so to an extent that surpassed any benefits from also eating epiphytes on the host, clearly, the relationship could not be considered mutualistic. To date, with one exception, we have seen no evidence that amphipods are specializing on specific host macroalgal species either

for food or shelter, at least among the more common amphipod species. Other than the exception, all of the moderately to very common amphipods utilize a range of macroalgal hosts (Huang et al. 2007) and there is no evidence from gut content or stable isotope analyses (Aumack 2010) for feeding specialization on macroalgae even in general, let alone on any macroalgal species or group of species. The exception is the amphipod Paradexamine fissicauda, which Aumack (2010) found to have a stable isotope signature that was unique in being close to many chemically defended red algae as well as having macroalgal thalli as important components of their gut contents, and which Huang et al. (2007) observed to be two to three orders of magnitude more abundant on the chemically defended red alga P.