When navigation requires travelling along familiar habitual routes evidence indicates that stimulus–response

associations stored in the dorsal striatum allow an animal to determine in which direction to proceed and when they have travelled far enough to arrive at the goal 1, 2 and 3]. However, when navigation relies on determining self-location in the environment and computing the spatial relationship to the goal, the hippocampus and connected structures of the medial temporal lobe (MTL), such as the entorhinal cortex, are needed for navigation 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8]. MTL and striatum also operate as Autophagy inhibitors high throughput screening part of a wider brain network serving navigation. In summary, it is thought the parahippocampal cortex supports the recognition of specific views and the retrosplenial cortex converts between allocentric (environment-bound) representations in hippocampal–entorhinal regions to egocentric representations in posterior parietal cortex 9•, 10 and 11]. In addition, the prefrontal cortex is thought to aid route planning, decision-making and switching between navigation this website strategies 12 and 13] and the cerebellum is required when navigation involves monitoring self-motion [14]. Here we focus on the role of the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex because of recent discoveries from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and single unit recording

studies and the development of new computational models. Electrophysiological investigations have revealed several distinct neural representations of self-location (see Figure 1 and for review [15]). Briefly, place cells found in hippocampal regions CA3 and CA1 signal the animal’s presence in particular regions of space; the cells’ place fields [16] (Figure 1a). Place fields are broadly stable between visits to familiar locations but remap whenever a novel environment is encountered, those quickly forming a new and distinct representation 17 and 18]. Grid cells, identified in entorhinal

cortex, and subsequently in the pre-subiculum and para-subiculum, also signal self-location but do so with multiple receptive fields distributed in a striking hexagonal array 19 and 20] (Figure 1b). Head direction cells, found throughout the limbic system, provide a complementary representation, signalling facing direction; with each cell responding only when the animal’s head is within a narrow range of orientations in the horizontal plane (e.g. [21], Figure 1c). Other similar cell types are also known, for example border cells which signal proximity to environmental boundaries [22] and conjunctive grid cells which respond to both position and facing direction [23]. It is likely that these spatial representations are a common feature of the mammalian brain, at the very least grid cells and place cells have been found in animals as diverse as bats, humans, and rodents [15].

Baltic Sea water is vertically stratified. The upper layer has a constant salinity of ca 7.1 and the sub-halocline layer a salinity of 15 in the western Bornholm Deep and 10 in the central Gotland Deep. The salinity of the sub-halocline water in the Gdańsk Deep is ca 12. Both water layers are separated at 60–80 m depth by a halocline,

which is defined as a water layer in which there is a distinct salinity (and density) gradient. Anoxic conditions, often reported under the halocline, are periodically improved by inflows of the well-oxygenated North Sea water masses (Voipio, 1981, Kouts and Omstedt, 1993, Björck, 1995, HELCOM, 2007 and The BACC Author Team, 2008). The research work described in this report is focused on three study sites located in the southern Baltic Sea (Figure 1) • Gdańsk Deep (54°50′N; CP-868596 purchase 19°17′E),

These regions were selected mainly because the water column in each is stratified: a stable halocline separates the water column into an upper, well-oxygenated layer Autophagy inhibitor and a sub-halocline, oxygen-deficient water layer. Moreover, the different hydrological settings of these areas – different distances from estuaries and the North Sea, differences in depths, and varying ranges of water temperature – could influence the POC and DOC concentrations there. The water column at each site was sampled several times in the period 2009–2011. Weather permitting, water samples were collected from several depths selected according to the salinity profile at the time of sampling. The spatial and temporal coverage of the samplings is presented in Table 1. There were no cruises in January, February, Histone demethylase November and December, so the average DOC and POC concentrations in the non-growing season given in this study may overestimate the actual ones. The seawater samples were collected in Niskin bottles during cruises of r/v ‘Oceania’, r/v ‘Aranda’ and r/v ‘Alkor’ between March 2009 and September 2011. The sampling schedule is presented in Table 1. The measurements began with temperature and salinity

using CTD SeaBird, 911-Plus. Throughout the manuscript salinity is given in Practical Salinity Units [PSU]. The depths of sampled layers were selected on the basis of temperature and salinity profiles. The pH of all the water samples was first measured using a WTW Multi 3400i pH meter. Concentrations of the following water constituents were also analysed: POC and DOC, chlorophyll a and phaeopigment a. Seawater (1500 ml) was collected and passed through pre-combusted and pre-weighed MN GF 5 (0.4 μm pore size) glass fibre filters. The filters with the suspended matter were preserved at − 20 °C until POC analysis on shore. In the laboratory the filters for POC analysis were dried at 60 °C for 24 h and weighed (0.001 mg accuracy). The filters were then homogenised in a ball mill. Part of each sample was weighed into a tin vessel, acidified with 0.1 ml 2 M HCl to remove carbonates, and dried at 90 °C for 24 h.

Low bead counts were more common with the VersaMAP kit in our hands (> 90% of samples on some runs and up to 1 in 3 standard/control wells). In contrast for the Bio-Plex and MILLIPLEX kits, low bead counts were not observed in any GSK J4 molecular weight standard/control wells and in 11% and 1% of samples respectively. This may have been a result of greater median bead aggregation observed with this type of sample for the VersaMAP kit than for the Bio-Plex and MILLIPLEX kits (29% vs 11% and 12% respectively). Even though each kit performed as specified and intended by the manufacturers, our aim was to quantify low concentrations of both IL-17

and IFNγ in tissue samples. Given our findings for sensitivity, standard curves and technical performance, only the Bio-Plex and MILLIPLEX kits were evaluated further. Spiked cytokine recovery was used to measure the ability of each kit to accurately quantify recombinant cytokines in tissue homogenates.

Nine biopsies each from three patients were individually prepared by manual disruption in extraction buffer (A). Supernatants from each patient were combined and split into aliquots. For each set of aliquots from a single patient, one learn more was spiked with extraction buffer alone (“unspiked”) and two were spiked with known concentrations of both recombinant human IL-17 and IFNγ. Therefore we evaluated the ability of each of the kits to accurately measure cytokine spikes in mucosal tissue homogenates at lower and higher concentrations (1.5, 6, 50, 100 and 1000 pg/mL; for range of standard curves see Table 1). Observed IL-17 values were lower than expected for both the Bio-Plex kit (≥ 6 pg/mL: 38% ± 8% [mean ± SD], 29–47% [range]) and the MILLIPLEX

kit (≥ 6 pg/mL: 36% ± 12%, 21–49%) MTMR9 — see Fig. 1A. Neither kit adequately measured IL-17 spike recovery at 1.5 pg/mL. The background levels in unspiked samples from the three patients were 0.0, 0.0 and 1.8 pg/mL for the Bio-Plex kit and slightly higher at 0.0, 2.4 and 2.5 pg/mL for the MILLIPLEX kit. The IFNγ spikes were recovered with generally lower than expected accuracy using the MILLIPLEX kit (≥ 50 pg/mL: 32% ± 12%, 19–42%) and overall with higher than expected accuracy with the Bio-Plex kit (≥ 50 pg/mL: 218% ± 235%, 57–487%) — see Fig. 1B. Neither kit adequately measured IFNγ spike recovery at 1.5 pg/mL and only the MILLIPLEX kit performed as expected at 6 pg/mL (121%). High levels of IFNγ background were detected in the unspiked samples using the Bio-Plex kit (49.2, 264.0 and 1193.7 pg/mL) compared with background levels of 0.3, 4.5 and 6.7 pg/mL with the MILLIPLEX kit. Note that a control containing only the RPMI-1640 and FCS extraction buffer (A) yielded an IFNγ reading of 1177.7 pg/mL with the Bio-Plex kit compared with 0.0 pg/mL for the PBS-based extraction buffers (B) and (C).

, 2001, Piao et al., 2009 and Clark et al., 2012). The bands in (C) at ∼1305 and Panobinostat order ∼1410 cm−1 are assigned to the vibrations of ionized carboxylic groups and those at ∼3060 and ∼850 cm−1 are assigned to the –NH3+ group (Piao et al., 2009). The bands at 1305 and 1410 cm−1 have almost disappeared in (B), indicating that Phe adsorption also occurred with interactions between ionized carboxylic

groups of the Phe molecule and groups at the adsorbent surface. Another type of interaction that can be hypothesized is hydrogen bonding between Phe amino groups and oxygenated groups at the surface in lieu of the downshift from 850 to 825 cm−1 in the band due to Phe amino group (Piao et al., 2009). Aside from these interactions, here, it is also evident that Phe molecules are also adsorbed by selleck compound interaction with phosphate groups introduced at the adsorbent surface upon chemical activation of the precursor material. The characteristic band of the stretching vibrations of P=O linkages, 1263 cm−1, is downshifted to 1220 cm−1, characteristic of phosphonates. We herein hypothesize that phosphonates are formed by interaction of carboxylic groups of phenylalanine molecules with phosphate groups that are interlinking the graphene sheets

comprising the main structure of the adsorbent. Results on the effects of particle size, initial pH and adsorbent dosage are shown in Fig. 2. Phe uptake increased with the decrease in particle size (Fig. 2a), since the accessibility to the particles pores was further facilitated by the decrease in particle size. Such behavior was also reported by Clark et al. (2012); however, with Amobarbital a decrease in adsorption efficiency when particle diameter was reduced below 0.50 mm, because finer particles were suspended in the aqueous solution (lower density) and not properly contacted with the

adsorbate. Such effect was not observed here, and the remaining experiments were conducted employing the adsorbent in the particle diameter range: 0.15 < D < 0.43 mm. Amino acids present both acid and base characteristics and thus changes in solution pH are expected to affect the adsorption mechanism and the extent in which Phe will be adsorbed onto the solid surface. Phenylalanine presents dissociation constants pK1 = 1.83 and pK2 = 9.13 and isoelectric point pI = 5.48 ( Fei-Peng et al., 2012). Results on the effects of initial solution pH on adsorption performance ( Fig. 2b) demonstrated that at pHs 4 and 6 similar values for Phe loading were attained after equilibrium (∼38 mg/g), whereas at pHs 8 and 10 lower capacities were observed (∼35 mg/g) and at pH 2 even lower capacities (∼30 mg/g). At pH 2, below pHPZC and pI, Phe molecules are predominantly positively charged whereas the adsorbent surface is only slightly positively charged (due to a few basic groups), so electrostatic repulsion is weak, and adsorption is occurring strictly by hydrophobic interactions.

, 1984), as well as improve the restorative recovery capacity after stress and prepare the organism

for the challenge (De Kloet et al., 2005). We might speculate that some of these events can be associated with the difference in the body weight curve between Wistar rats and WARs. In order to test HPA axis activity of WARs, we verified the ACTH response after restraint stress, and we found that the plasma ACTH levels were higher in WARs than in Wistar. Despite this difference in ACTH release, in the same protocol, the plasma corticosterone level did not differ between WARs and Wistar, suggesting a possible ACTH roof effect. It is important to point out that ACTH selleck chemicals is a known anti-convulsant factor and it has long been used in clinical protocols to treat Bortezomib concentration infantile spasms (IS) in West Syndrome (WS) and other syndromes that are resistant to conventional treatment (Mackay et al., 2004 and Riikonen, 2004). However, there is not a well-established animal model for WS, and in several animal models of IS ACTH shows low efficacy to reduce the spasms (Chudomelova et al., 2010). Scantlebury et al. (2010), for example, showed that in a multiple-hit

model of symptomatic IS cosyntropin—a synthetic derivative of ACTH—fails to suppress spasms. Therefore, ACTH is not necessarily anti-convulsant in rodent models of epilepsy, and more studies are necessary to better understand the role of ACTH in audiogenic seizures in WARs. In contrast to ACTH, corticosterone is a well-established pro-convulsant molecule in both acute triclocarban and chronic animal models of epilepsy (Kling et al., 1993, Roberts and Keith, 1995 and Karts et al., 1999). The plasma levels of ACTH and corticosterone in Wistar rats after 15 min of restraint stress were similar to those found by Elias et al. (2002). These authors also showed that Wistar animals in basal conditions, when treated with exogenous CRH and ACTH between 8 a.m. and 10 a.m.,

had elevated values of ACTH and corticosterone. Our current experiments, however, show that WARs submitted to exogenous application of ACTH had plasma corticosterone levels that were even more elevated than those of Wistar rats. This higher response to exogenous ACTH in WARs could be ascribed to their increased adrenal gland weight. It will be interesting to test whether this adrenal weight increase in WARs might be a phenomenon compatible with the known pro-convulsant effect of glucocorticoids (Roberts and Keith, 1995). It is well known that glucocorticoids exert neuronal excitatory effects, which are mediated through binding to central mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in the hippocampus. Clear evidence of excitatory effects of MR was shown by Joëls and de Kloet (1992).

High salinity can cause osmotic stress and further salt intake, and osmotic stress can produce superabundant Gefitinib reactive oxygen species (ROS) that increase oxidative stress in plants [37] and [38]. In the present study, under salt stress, some osmotic and oxidative stress-related proteins that may be involved in improving the salt tolerance of transgenic wheat were up-regulated in the transgenic line T349. Methionine synthase catalyzes the formation of methionine by the transfer of a methyl group from 5-methyltetrahydrofolate to homocysteine. This reaction occurs in the activated methyl cycle, which is known as the metabolic source of

single carbons [39]. In this cycle, methionine is further converted into S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) by S-adenosylmethionine synthetase. SAM provides a methyl group for many metabolites, including important compounds, such as glycine betaine, methylated polyols, and polyamines, under high salinity conditions. Glycine betaine and methylated polyols are compatible solutes that accumulate in the cytoplasm and that regulate osmotic balance under salt stress [40] and [41]. Thus

the up-regulation of methionine synthase (S1-11) in T349 may play an important role in improving the ability of transgenic wheat to tolerate salt by regulating the osmotic balance. In barley leaves, the methionine synthase protein CDK assay and transcript levels all increased under salt stress (200 mmol L− 1 NaCl for three days) [42]. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) (S1-6) was also up-regulated in T349 under salt stress. GPD is an important enzyme in the glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways. Increased GPD activity mobilizes carbon away from glycerol and into the pathway leading to glycolysis and ATP formation, providing the compatible osmolytes and the energy required for osmotic stress tolerance [43]. In other studies, the salt tolerance of transgenic potato plants was improved by the gene transfer of glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate dehydrogenase [44]. GPD was transcriptionally

up-regulated Thiamet G in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum during salt stress [45]. Thus the up-regulation of methionine synthase and GPD in T349 may also play an important role in improving the plant’s salt tolerance by regulating the osmotic balance. At the physiological level, after 3, 5, and 7 days of NaCl treatment, glycine betaine, and proline contents were significantly higher in T349 than in Jimai 19. Although there is a positive correlation reported between proline accumulation and osmotolerance, the cardinal role of proline as an osmoprotectant under varying conditions of stress has been shown in certain plants [46] and [47]. It is well known that glycine betaine, as an osmolyte and enzyme-protectant, can protect the integrity of the membrane under conditions of salt stress, thereby improving the salt tolerance of the plant [48] and [49].

7%

and 4.8 ± 0.5%, respectively) in comparison with negative control (94.3 ± 1.5%, viable cells; 1.7 ± 0.9%, early apoptosis and 1.5 ± 0.2%, late apoptosis) (p < 0.05) ( Fig. 5B). Similarly, Dox also caused a significant cell viability decreasing (16.1 ± 0.1%) and early apoptosis rising (83.2 ± 0.1%). Another early marker of the apoptotic process is the depletion of mitochondria membrane potential. In this work, none of the compounds evaluated in 24 h of treatment significantly alter the mitochondrial membrane potential (p > 0.05), suggesting that only the extrinsic pathway was activated within 24 h. However, in 48 h exposure, compound 4 (2 μM) caused depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential (37.3 ± 4.6%, Fig. 5C) when compared to negative control (4.7 ± 0.6%, p < 0.05). Dox, positive control, cause anti-PD-1 antibody GSK1120212 concentration intense membrane depolarization after 24 h (44.0 ± 2.3%) and 48 h (46.9 ± 5.4%) of incubation. The DNA damage induced by the α-santonin derivatives was evaluated in human mononuclear cells. DNA damages were not detected with the concentrations tested (p > 0.05, data not shown). Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs) are plant-derived compounds often used in traditional medicine against several human diseases such as inflammation and cancer (Ghantous et al., 2010). Previous researches showed no cytotoxic activity of the α-santonin molecule, even at high concentrations (100 μM) (Kim et al., 2002 and Konaklieva learn more and Plotkin,

2005). Then, we designed three cytotoxic sesquiterpene lactones based on α-santonin (Arantes et al., 2009; 2010) with activity on different cancer cell lines and low toxicity on PBMC. In this work, we propose the mechanism responsible for this cytotoxicity using the HL-60 cell line as experimental model and the compounds tested (1 and 2 μM) after 24 h of treatment. Initially, we showed that the antiproliferative potential of the α-santonin derivatives is not related to direct

membrane damages, since the trypan and propidium iodide exclusion techniques did reveal membrane permeability of remaining cells. In fact, it is possible that apoptosis or other process might have already compromised cell proliferation, but membrane integrity is still maintained (Kepp et al., 2011). We previously reported that these derivatives did not produce cell membrane disruption of mouse erythrocytes (Arantes et al., 2010). Some studies have been pointed that SLs inhibit tumor growth by selective alkylation of growth-regulatory biological macromolecules, such as DNA and key enzymes, which control cell division, thereby inhibiting a variety of cellular functions, which leads cells into apoptotic death (Fernandes et al., 2008 and Rozenblat et al., 2008). Herein, all molecules reduced BrdU incorporation by HL-60 treated cells, suggesting inhibition of DNA synthesis. Other SLs caused inhibition of DNA synthesis by BrdU test such as enhydin, uvedalin and sonchifolin (Siriwan et al., 2011).

L’enseignant met en œuvre des techniques qu’il peut justifier

en produisant un discours sur la technique, une technologie. L’enseignant met en œuvre une praxéologie, c’est-à-dire des savoir-faire (la praxis) et un discours raisonné (le logos). Ainsi, toute action humaine peut s’analyser en un système qu’on nomme praxéologie comportant des types de tâches associées à des techniques, justifiées par une technologie (discours sur la technique), justifiable par une théorie. Une notion clé a été avancée par Chevallard: la transposition didactique. La transposition didactique est l’activité qui cnsiste à transformer un objet de savoir savant en un objet de savoir à enseigner. Il y a une distance entre le savoir savant et le savoir enseigné qui doit

être étudiée pour comprendre des phénomènes didactiques. DAPT molecular weight Le fonctionnement du savoir en classe est différent du fonctionnement du savoir savant. La transposition didactique se décompose en transpositions externe et interne. La transposition externe des savoirs savants aux savoirs à enseigner concerne la transformation des savoirs et des pratiques en programmes scolaires (curriculum selleck inhibitor formel ou prescrit); la transposition didactique interne des savoirs à enseigner aux savoirs enseignés concerne la transformation des programmes en contenus effectifs de l’enseignement, elle relève de la marge d’interprétation, de création de l’enseignant. Quessada and Clément (2007) ont ensuite défini le Délai de Transposition Didactique (DTD) Ce DTD mesure le temps qui sépare l’émergence d’un concept DNA ligase dans la communauté scientifique, et son apparition dans les programmes scolaires (DTDp) ou dans les manuels scolaires (DTDm). Selon ces auteurs, le DTD est court quand le contexte sociopolitique voit un intérêt à l’introduction de ces connaissances dans le système scolaire (par exemple les dernières découvertes sur les origines de l’espèce humaine lors de la 3ème République, laïque). A contrario, il est long quand les pouvoirs dominants n’ont pas intérêt à l’introduction

de ces connaissances à l׳école (par exemple la théorie darwinienne de l׳évolution jusqu׳à la fin du XXe siècle). On doit à Brousseau la théorie des situations. En classe, l’enseignant élabore une situation en fonction d’un objectif d’apprentissage, mais en dissimulant suffisamment cet objectif pour que l׳élève ne puisse l’atteindre que par une adaptation personnelle à la situation. La résolution de la tâche et l’apprentissage qui en résulte dépend de la richesse du milieu didactique dans lequel sont alors placés les élèves. Le milieu didactique est la partie de la situation d’enseignement avec laquelle l׳élève est mis en interaction. Il est défini par des aspects matériels (instruments, documents, organisation spatiale, etc.) et la dimension sémiotique associée (que faire avec, pourquoi faire avec, comment faire avec…).

Não podemos esquecer, que estes critérios não foram feitos para identificar síndromes de sobreposição e, na suspeita de autoimunidade, a biopsia hepática ainda é fundamental sendo, por vezes, o melhor árbitro e guia terapêutico. Seria útil uma comparação entre os 2 sistemas de classificação na determinação que doentes necessitariam realmente de biopsia hepática e quais beneficiariam com a terapêutica imunossupressora. Para além da necessidade de uma validação em grandes estudos prospectivos dos critérios simplificados, temos ainda por esclarecer se haverá algum critério de classificação melhor para uma determinada população. Será este baixo KU-57788 in vitro valor

de concordância obtido no artigo de Correia L. et al 15 um aviso que os critérios simplificados não serão os ideais para a nossa população? Qual o melhor score para a nossa população

portuguesa? Esperamos que este estudo seja o primeiro de vários para obtenção das nossas respostas. “
“A hepatite autoimune (HAI) é uma inflamação do fígado de etiologia desconhecida1 and 2. Pensa-se que na sua fisiopatologia estejam envolvidos fatores ambientais, falência de mecanismos de imunotolerância e predisposição genética que, em conjunto, vão induzir uma resposta celular contra antigénios PLX-4720 nmr hepáticos, mediada pelos linfócitos T, levando a um processo progressivo de necroinflamação e de fibrose2, 3 and 4. É uma doença relativamente rara, sendo a prevalência de 11 a 17 indivíduos por cada 100 000, com uma incidência de 1 a 2 indivíduos NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase por ano por cada 100 0002. Pode surgir em ambos os sexos (embora seja mais frequente no feminino) e em todos os grupos etários e raças1, 2, 5 and 6. O diagnóstico baseia-se nas alterações histológicas, nas características clínicas e nos achados laboratoriais (aumento das globulinas

séricas e presença de um ou mais autoanticorpos característicos)1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Tem apresentação clínica variável, pelo que o seu reconhecimento pode ser difícil. Frequentemente assintomática ou com sintomas inespecíficos (fadiga, icterícia, náuseas, dor abdominal e artralgias), pode também apresentar-se como hepatite aguda grave ou como falência hepática fulminante, com necessidade de transplante hepático9, 11 and 12. Assim, deve ser suspeitada em qualquer doente com aumento das aminotransferases6. Quando não é tratada, a HAI tem mau prognóstico, com desenvolvimento de cirrose hepática em menos de 10 anos e com sobrevivência de 50% aos 5 anos5 and 6. Por outro lado, com terapêutica imunossupressora, à qual mais de 80% dos doentes responde, a maioria pode esperar sobrevivência normal e com boa qualidade de vida13 and 14. Por esse motivo, o diagnóstico e o tratamento atempados são fundamentais5 and 6.

In our

study, a gene encoding ARF was up-regulated during kernel development, suggesting that it also plays a similar role in differentiation during maize embryogenesis. Moreover, many putative protein kinase genes were differentially expressed at various times, which were involved in signaling transduction pathway during maize ear development. For example, homeobox–leucine zipper family protein, a member of the LRR (leucine-rich repeat family protein) subfamily, might be required to increase cell size and the rate of embryonic development. A gene encoding a homeobox–leucine zipper family protein was up-regulated from 15 to 25 DAP, suggesting that this kinase might function in forming organs in the maize embryo. Therefore, we deduced that the accumulation of bZIP transcripts, MADS box-like proteins, and click here putative laccase resulting PI3K Inhibitor Library from the down-regulation of miR528 might enhance auxin response and, in turn, seed germination in the final stage of seed development (after 22 DAP). However, further work is required to elucidate the functions of these protein kinases. By constructing a small RNA library and characterizing miRNA expression profiles in pooled maize ears at 10, 15, 20, 22, 25 and 30 DAP, at least 21 miRNAs were differentially

expressed. qRT-PCR verification for miR528a and miR167a/miR160b indicated that these miRNAs might be involved in ear development and germination. In addition, functional predictions of target genes indicated that most of

these differentially expressed miRNAs tended to have target genes that were involved in signal transduction and cell communication, particularly those involved in the auxin-signaling pathway. The results of gene expression analysis of candidate germination-associated miRNAs performed by microarray hybridization with a maize genome array demonstrated the differential expression of genes involved in plant hormone signaling pathways. This suggested that phytohormones might play a critical Aldehyde dehydrogenase role in the maize ear developmental process. We showed that in combination with other miRNAs, miR528a regulates a putative laccase, a Ring-H2 zinc finger protein and a MADS box-like protein, whereas miR167a and miR160b regulate target genes including ARF (auxin response factor), a member of the B3 transcription factor family that is important for ear germination and physiology. Thus the small RNA transcriptomes and mRNA obtained in this study provide considerable insight into the expression and function of small RNAs in the development of viviparous kernels. This study was supported by grants from the Educational Commission of Sichuan Province (No. 2006J13-039), the Doctoral Program Foundation of Institutions of Higher Education of China (No. 20095103120002), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30900901). “
“Rye (Secale cereale L.) is an important cereal crop worldwide.